UNIT 8. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM (NATURAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 8

WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?

·         Electrical charges

Electricity begins in atoms. Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons inside a nucleus and electrons that move around them. Protons have positive electric charge and electrons have negative electric charge. Neutons have no charge. If an object has the same number of electrons and protons, it is electrically neutral. However, electrons sometimes move easily from one object to another, so the object is electrically charged.

·         Forces between electrical charges

Electrically charged objects attract or repel objects, depending on their charges.

·         Static electricity

Storms are an example of static electricity. Ice particles in the cloud move very fast and rub together. The cloud charges negatively and the ground is positively charged. If the electrical charge of the cloud is enough, it will meet the positive charge of the ground and causes energy in form of light, heat and sound.

·         Current electricity

The movement of electrons from one object to another creates electrical current. Some materials like rubber or plastic are resistant to the movement of electrons but there are others, that are good conductors. The electrical current travels through a electrical circuit. Its parts are:

-          A power source (produces energy, like a battery)

-          Wires (transport electricity)

-          A switch (opens and closes the circuit)

-          A resistor or receptor (receives electricity and transforms into another form of energy).

MAGENISTISM

A magnet is an object that attracts metals and the ability to attract metals is magnetism. There are natural and artificial magnets. Magnetite, for example, is a natural magnet but most of magnets are artificial. Magnets c abe:

-          Permanent, they never lose their magnetism.

-          Induced or temporary , have a temporary magnetic force.

All magnets have two poles: north and south. If you break a magnet, both parts will have north and south poles.  If you hold a magnets it will always point to the magnetic north pole. Two different poles attract, but two equal poles, repel.

·         Magnetic field

The forcé around a magnet is called magnetic field. We can´t see this field but we can see its shape using iron filings. The magnetic field is stronger at the poles.

·         The Earth is a magnet

The Earth´s molten iron core acts like a huge magnet. The magnetic field around the Earth deflects  (or changes the direction of) cosmic rays and potects our atmosphere.

·         Compass

A compass is an instrument used for navigation.  The needle og the compass is magnetised and points to the magnetic North pole. The circle around the needle , called rose, is marked with cardinal points.

MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS

Magnetic materials are always made of metal  but  ot all metals are attracted by magnets.

·         Electromagnets

They are objects that act as magnets when an electrical current passes through them.

·         Magnets all around us

We use magnets every day, for example, to listen to music through the headphones . Electromagnets are used in motors, generators, etc.  Many home appliances, like hairdryers, transform electricity into mechanical energy.  In hospitals, magnetic resonance imaging is used to detect problems in our organs.        Magnets are also used for separation and lifting heavy objects. In transport, some trains (like Maglev) use magnetic levitation to move without touching the ground.

UNIT 8. MODERN SPAIN II (SOCIAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 8

YEARS OF POLITICAL INESTABILITY

While Isabel II was the queen (1833-1868), her government was was dominated by two military politicians: Ramón María Narváez and Leopoldo O´Donell. When they died, General Juan Prim sent the Queen into the exile and started to llok for a new mocharh.

1870-1873: King Amadeo I de Saboya

After two years looking for a King, Amadeo, the itialian Duke of Aosta, accepted the throne. But when General Prim was assissinated there was inestability.

Amadeo dealt with conflicts between political parties, the Cuban Revolution, rebellions by Carlists in Basque and Catalan Regions, problems with the army. In 1873 he returned to Italy.

1873-1874: First Republic

On 11th February 1873 the first Republic started in Spain. There was inestability and it lasted just 11 months. It had four presidents and three civil wars.

On January 1874, General Manuel Pavia mounted a coup and the republic finished.  Ggeneral Martínez Campos restored the monarchy and Alfonso XII (Isabel II´s son) became the new King of Spain.

THE RESTORATION: 1875 – 1923

1875 – 1885: King Alfonso XII

There was a constitutional monarch with Alfonso XII and the Constitution of 1876.        There was a new political system: the turno pacífico. There were two legal parties: the Liberals and the Conservatives.  Thye took turns to have the power.

There were two important people:

-          Antonio Cánovas del Castillo who was the Prime minister six times and was the leader of the Conservatives.

-          Práxedes Mateo Sagasta who was Prime minister eight times and the leader of the Liberals.

Characteristics of this period:

Pros:

-          Spain was stable again.

-          It was a good period for economy and modernisation.

-          There was peace in Cuba and Puerto  Rico.

Cons:

-          There was electoral fraud because the King chose the government.

-          Basque and Catalan nacionalisms were agains the unfair system.

FROM ALFONSO XIII TO THE SECOND REPUBLIC

When Alfonso XII died his son Alfonso XIII became King but his mother, María Cristina, was his regent until he was sixteen.

                During the regency period, Spain lost its colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico and suffered defeats in Morocco and a violent rioting in Barcelona.

Primo de Rivera organised a coup. He suspended the Constitution and became a dictator between 1923 – 1930. He was not a good leader and  Spain went bankrupt.  The army stopped supporting him and Alfonso XIII forced him to resign. However, people did not trust  Alfonso XIII and in 1931, the Republicans won the elections and the Second Republic started. It lasted unitl the end of the Civil war in 1939.

THE CONSTITUTION OF 1931

-          Freedom of speech

-          Women could vote.

-          Divorce was legal

-          No special status of the Spanish nobility

-          Limited powers of the church.

OPPOSITION TO THE REPUBLIC

-          The church because the republic limited its power.

-          Tthe military and the Nacionalists

-          Workers groups: The Secondary Republic for opressive for them.

-          Monarchists and fascits: their status was reduced.

THE CIVIL WAR 1936 – 1939

On 18th July 1936, General Francisco Franco led a takeover and the civil war started. Span was divided into: the Republicans and the Nacionalists.

The war ended on 1 April 1939 with a Nacionalist Victory.

FROM DICTATORSHIP TO DEMOCRACY

When the civil war finished in 1939, Francisco Franco started a dictatorship until 1975. After the war Franco developed a policy based on economic self- sufficiency, he cut international trade.  In 1960s Spain was prosperous and tourism became an important part of the economy.

LIFE DURING THE REGIME

-          Repression: A lot of prisión went to prison due to their political beliefs.

-           Starvation: people had ration books to buy the specific quantity of first necessity goods they could buy.

-          Lack of freedom (in press, protests were repressed).

-          Cultural restrictions: many traditions were repressed.

THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY

In 1969, Franco named Price Juan Carlos, Alfonso XIII´s, as his successor. When Juan Carlos became King he wanted a constitutional monarchy for Spain. In 1975, when Franco died, the transition from a dictatorship to democracy began.

King Juan Carlos I named Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister  in 1976. He got free elections and a democratic state. He did all these things:

-          Released of political prisoner

-          Dissolution of secret police

-          Right of strike and formed trade unions

-          Legalisation of all political parties.

-          New electoral law. In 1977 the first elections took place.

In 1978, the Parliament approved the Spanish Constitution and then the people by a referéndum.

UNIT 7. MODERN SPAIN I (SOCIAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 7. MODERN SPAIN I

REVOLUTION AND CHANGES IN SPAIN

With the French Revolution, the absolutism finished and new liberal ideas started.

·         Carlos IV

Carlos IV became a Spanish King in 1788, when The French Revolution started. In the past, relationships between Spain and France were not very good but in 1807 the Prime Minister (Manuel Godoy) signed the Treaty of Fotainebleu with  Napoleon Bonaparte.  They agreed to invade Portugal and divide it between them, but France used this to invade Spain. Fernando VII, who was Carlos´ son,  did not agree with the Alliance between France and Spain and led the Mutiny of Aranjuez against Godoy in 1808. Carlos abdicated and Fernando became King. Later, Napoleon forced Fernando VII to abdícate and put his brother Joseph Bonaparte in the Spanish throne.

·         The war of Independence

After the French invasión, the 2nd May 1808 there was an uprising and The War of Independence began. It was against France and it also was a civil war in Spain because there were different opinions about who should be the King.

With the help of British, the French were defeated and, in 1814, Fernando was recognised as King by Napoleón. Absolutism came back.

·         The Constitution of 1812

Cadiz was the only place of Spain which was not under the French power and in 1812 the First Spanish Consitution was signed. It was a liberal Constitution and itestablished:

-          Freedom of the press

-          Equality for all

-          Right vote for men over 18

-          Freedom of expression

-          National sovereignty

-          A Constitutional Monarchy

But when Fernando VII came to the throne in 1814, it was abolished.

·         The Independence of the American territories

The French Revolution and American Independence from Britain in 1776  influenced liberal ideas in the descendants of Spanish and Portuguese colonists. In 1825, Spain had a lot of these territories except Cuba and Puerto Rico.

THE REIGNS OF FERNANDO VII AND ISABEL II

The reign of Fernando VII can be divided into three periods:

1.       1814 – 1820 (Absolustism): When Fernando came back to the Spanish throne it meant the end of the French occupation.  He declared illegal the Constitution in 1814 and be became an absolute monarch.

2.       1820 – 1823 (Liberal Trienium): Rafael del Riego led a military rebelión. In 1823, Fernando VII revoked the Constitution again having the support of other absolutist regimes in Europe.

3.       1823 – 1823 (Ominous decade): period of repreessions and problema of sucession.

When Fernando VII died in 1833, the laws  did not let women to reign, so Carlos (Fernando´s brother) should be the King. However, Fernando chose his daughter Isabel to be the queen. He was 3 years old, so her mother María Cristina and General Espartero were their regents until she was 13. She was Isabel II.

There were different civil wars  (Carlist wars) between the people who wanted Carlos as King (the Carlists, who wanted and absolute monarchy) and the people who supported the regency.

During Isabel´s reign, Spain became a parlamentary monarchy. There was political inestability and she was exiled in 1868.

There was a provisional government which wrote the Constitution of 1869 (similar to the Constitution of 1812).

·         Social changes

-          Upper class: nobility and owners of rich factories and Banks, called the upper bourgeoisie. They wanted to raise their status by marrying between memebers of nobility or buying big houses.

-          Middle class: merchants, doctors, lawyers and small landowners.

-          The working class: very low-paid agricultutral workers and labourers from rural areas. In urban  areas, there were factory workers.

·         The labour movement

Conditions for the working class were very bad. In rural areas, workers were low-paid and were unemplyed part of the year.  Industrial workers worked a lot of hours in dangerous conditions.

Workers created associations ( unions) to improve their wages and working conditions.

CULTURE: A REFLECTION OF THE TIMES

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes was a painter of this time who painted about this period of change and revolution in Spain.

-          1774 – 1792: free time activities of the different social classes. For example: La gallina ciega, El pelele, La vendimia.

-          1785: portraits of the Royal family. For example: La familia de Carlos IV.

-          1808 – 1813: horrors of the War of Independence. For example: El dos de Mayo, La carga de los mamelucos, Los fusilamientos de la Moncloa.

-          1814-1824: black paintings. For example: Saturno devorando a su hijo, El aquelarre.

·         The horrors of a war

Los fusilamientos de la Moncloa:

-          Disposition: it is divided into two parts: the right side is darker and the left side represents the observer´s eye of the key part.

-          Colours: it is a dark painting but the painter used White and red to highlight some details and to represent suffering.

-          Facial expressions: the painter wanted to show suffering as we can see in the faces of the victims. For tese reason we do not see the soldiers faces.