UNIT 3. REPRODUCTION (NATURAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 3 – REPRODUCTION

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

·         Sexual characteristics

Sexual characteristics are physical diferences between men and women.  Primary sexual characteristics are the differences between male and female reproductive organs.  Secondary sexual characteristics are other differences like men have more hair or women have wider hips.

·         The female reproductive organs

-          Ovaries: produce reproductive cells called ova.  One ovum matures each month.

-          Fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus.

-          The uterus is an organ with muscular walls. Babies develop here. The part of the uterus that is connected to the vagina is called cervix.

-          The vagina is a muscular organ that connects the uterus with the exterior. The vulva covers the opening vagina.

·         Puberty in girls

Changes in girls happen during th puberty (between 10 and 16 years old): breasts develop, pubic hair grows, they grow and menstruation starts.

·         The menstrual cycle

Ovaries starts to release ova. An ovum is released from the ovaries to the fallopian tubes about every 28 days, this is ovulation.  The walls of the uterus get thicker with extra blood and tissue to prepare it for fertilisation. When fertilisation doesn´t happen the ovum dries and levaes the body with blood, this is menstruation. It lasts about 3 -5 days. About 50 women don´t produce more ova and menopause starts.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

·         Sperm

The male reproductive system  produces sperm.  It has an oval shape and a tail that allows them to move up the fallopian tubes and fertilise the ovum.

·         The male reproductive organs

The testicles produce and store sperm. They are covered by  a bag of skin called scrotum and it regulates  the temperature of the testicles. They need to be a Little bit cooler than the rest of the body.

Sperm travels through two tubes called vasa deferentia to the seminal vesicles.  They produce a liquid that forms part of the semen.  The prostate produces a liquid that also forms part of the semen.

The penis contains the urethra. The semens travels through the urethra to the outside of the body. The urethra also expels urine.

·    Puberty in boys

During th epuberty testicles activate and produce testosterone, whihc produces difeerent physical changes: penis get larger and thicker and boys become fertile, pubic hair grows, boys grow and become heavier, the voice changes, etc.

·    Genes

Parents pass their characteristics to their offspring thorugh genes.

PREGNANCY AND BIRTH

             Human reproduction involves two cells: a female ovum and a male sperm.  It has different steps:

1.  Felisitation happens when the ovum is realised into the fallopian tubes. The man´s penis is inserted into the woman´s vagina and the sperm is expelled there.  One sperm fertilised one ovum. The fertilised ovum is called zygote.

2.  Development of the embryo. After fertilisation the zygote travels to the uterus where its divides and becomes an embryo. It fixes onto the walls of the uterus where it will continue to grow.

3.  Development of the foetus. Afert about nine months, all the organs are formed and the embryo transforms into a foetus. It is floating in a sac of amiotic fluid. The foetus recives nutrients and oxygen through the placenta. Waste products and carbón dioxide are also transmited to the mother through the placenta and it is connected to the baby by the umbilical cord.

4.  Birth. Preganancy lasts about 280 days. When the foetus is ready to be born it pushes against the cérvix, whihc starts to open and widen.  The amniotic fluid is expeled and the uterus starts to contract. The cérvix opens until the baby can pass. The baby pushed against the cérvix with the head. When the baby is born the umbilical cord is cut and th scar is our navel. The placenta is expeled too after the baby.

UNIT 3. GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE (SOCIAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 3. GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THEIR CAPITALS

Europe has about 50 countries and its population is about 730 million people.

·         Distribution of population

Most people live in Central and Western Europe. About 75% of the population kive in urbana reas. Norway, Sweden and Finland are the least populated countries. The most populated countries are Rusia, UK, Turkey, Germany, Spain, Italy and France.

THE PHYSCAL GEOGRPHY OF EUROPE

·         Mountains and plains

Most of the mountains are in the South. In the north and the east have more areas of plains and lowlands. The three main areas are:

-          The European Plain: it goes from the west (Atlantic ocean) to the east (the Ural Mountains).

-          Old mountains: they are in the north and in the centre and they are usually less than 1000 metres high. Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains are higher.

-          Young mountains: they are in the south and they are more then 3000 metres high, for example, the Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkan Mountains and the Caucasus Mountains.

RIVERS

Europe has many rivers and their characteristics depend on the sea or ocean they flow into.

-          Rivers that flows inot the Artic Ocean are long with a regular course. In Winter they are usually frozen.

-          Rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea are short with an irregular flow.

-          Rivers that flow into the Caspian Sea and Black Sea are long and regular.

There are many lakes in  Central Europe, for example, Lake Geneva and Lake Constance.

CLIMATE IN EUROPE

CLIMATE	CHARACTERISTICS	FLORA	FAUNA
ALPINE	Very cold winters and cool summers. It rains a lot and usually it is snow.	Forests full of coniferous trees and pine trees.
CONTINENTAL	Eestern Europe has this climate. Cold winters and hot summers. Low rainfall with some storms in summer.	Steppes and taiga.
MEDITERRANEAN	In the Mediterranean coast and part ofSouthern Europe. High temperatures in summer and cooler in Winter. Low precipitation although in autumn it can be higher.	Mediterranean forests with evergreen trees.
OCEANIC	In Central and Western Europe. Mild summer temperatures with high precipitation all year. It has 4 clear seasons.	Broadleaf forests.
POLAR	It is the coldest climate with temperatures of -50 degrees in Winter.  For example, in the North of Scandinavia.	Flora is limited by low temperatures	Polar bears and pacific salmon

UNIT 3. GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE (SOCIAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 3. GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THEIR CAPITALS

Europe has about 50 countries and its population is about 730 million people.

·         Distribution of population

Most people live in Central and Western Europe. About 75% of the population kive in urbana reas. Norway, Sweden and Finland are the least populated countries. The most populated countries are Rusia, UK, Turkey, Germany, Spain, Italy and France.

THE PHYSCAL GEOGRPHY OF EUROPE

·         Mountains and plains

Most of the mountains are in the South. In the north and the east have more areas of plains and lowlands. The three main areas are:

-          The European Plain: it goes from the west (Atlantic ocean) to the east (the Ural Mountains).

-          Old mountains: they are in the north and in the centre and they are usually less than 1000 metres high. Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains are higher.

-          Young mountains: they are in the south and they are more then 3000 metres high, for example, the Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkan Mountains and the Caucasus Mountains.

RIVERS

Europe has many rivers and their characteristics depend on the sea or ocean they flow into.

-          Rivers that flows inot the Artic Ocean are long with a regular course. In Winter they are usually frozen.

-          Rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea are short with an irregular flow.

-          Rivers that flow into the Caspian Sea and Black Sea are long and regular.

There are many lakes in  Central Europe, for example, Lake Geneva and Lake Constance.

CLIMATE IN EUROPE

CLIMATE	CHARACTERISTICS	FLORA	FAUNA
ALPINE	Very cold winters and cool summers. It rains a lot and usually it is snow.	Forests full of coniferous trees and pine trees.
CONTINENTAL	Eestern Europe has this climate. Cold winters and hot summers. Low rainfall with some storms in summer.	Steppes and taiga.
MEDITERRANEAN	In the Mediterranean coast and part ofSouthern Europe. High temperatures in summer and cooler in Winter. Low precipitation although in autumn it can be higher.	Mediterranean forests with evergreen trees.
OCEANIC	In Central and Western Europe. Mild summer temperatures with high precipitation all year. It has 4 clear seasons.	Broadleaf forests.
POLAR	It is the coldest climate with temperatures of -50 degrees in Winter.  For example, in the North of Scandinavia.	Flora is limited by low temperatures	Polar bears and pacific salmon

UNIT 2. GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN (SOCIAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 2. GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN

AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES

Spain is divided into 17 Autonomous Communities and two Autonomous Cities: Ceuta and Melilla. The Autonomous Communities are divided into provinces and they are divided into municipalities. Tthe Constitution of 1978 establihed the powers of the different communities.

·         The role of the Autonomous Communities

Each Autonomous Community has a Statue of Autonomy. It defines:

-          The territory and the capital city.

-          The oficial language os languages.

-          The legal power and the government institutions.

-          The symbols are: the flag, its anthem and the coat of arms.

-          Local services

The national government controls: international relations, defence, justice, comercial, criminal, civil and labour laws and collecting taxes.

·         Organisation

-          Each Autonomous Community has a Parliament. Citizens over 18 can vote every 4 years to choose the deputies, whihc make laws and choose a President for the Autonomous Community. The President chooses the councillors for the regional government.

-          Municipalities are made up of a mayor and councillors. Local citizens vote for the mayor and councillors, who make decisions at a local level.

RIVERS

The big rivers have tributaries that are small rivers flowing into them and have also dams. Depending on the climate and relief rivers have different characteristics:

-          Rivers in the Cantabrian watershed are very short but very fast because they come from Cordillera Cantábrica or Montes Vascos (near the sea). Due to the Atlantic climate, with high precipitation, these rivers have a large waterflow.

-          Rivers in the Atlantic watershed vary depending on the region. For example, rivers in Galicia are short  but with a large waterflow but in the Meseta they are long with irregular waterflow.

-          In the Mediterranean watershed rivers are short with an irregular waterflow.

Mountains

It is  a montanious country with a plateau called Meseta in the central part of the Peninsula.

CLIMATE IN SPAIN

CLIMATE	CHARACTERISTICS	FLORA	FAUNA
ALPINE	Very cold winters and cool summers. It rains a lot and usually it is snow.	Oak, fir and coniferous trees	Goats, Vultures and Eagles
CONTINENTAL	Very cold winters and very hot summers	Coniferous and decidious trees, thyme	Squirrels, deer, hares, wild boar, foxes, trout
MEDITERRANEAN	In the Mediterranean coast and part of Andalucía and Extremadura. Winters are mild and summers, hot. Low precipitation and some sporadic storms in summer months.	Pine and oak trees, heather	Iberian lynx, rabbits, flamingos
OCEANIC	In the north and North-west. Heavy rainfall, so there are green landscapes. Not very cold winters and mild summers	Decidious forests, oak trees, ferns, mosses	Iberian Brown bears, salmon
SUBTROPICAL	In the Canary Islands. Trade winds and warm temepratures all year. Low precipitation.	Pine trees, cacti, palm trees and dragon trees	Lizards, turtles.

UNIT 2. NUTRITION (NATURAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 2. NUTRITION

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Nutrients are the substances that iliving things need to live and grow. Tthe digestive system is the group of organs that extract nutrients and expel waste.

Digestion

1.       The nose and the mouth: because of our smell sense, our mouth produces saliva and it helps teeth to chew food.

2.       The oesophagus: the tongue moves the food and forms a ball called bolus. We swallow the bolus and passes through the oesophagus, which is a big tube that connects the the throat with the stomach. The epiglottis, at the back of the tongue, prevents food from going to the windpipe and lungs.

3.       The stomach: it breaks down food using muscular walls and gastric juices, which mix with the bolus and kill dangerous bacteria.

4.       The small intestine: when the food is disolved into a liquid, it passes into the small intestine. It mixes with mile (produced by liver) and pancreatic juices (produced by pancreas).  The food mixture is broken down into proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fats. Nutrients pass through the walss of the small intestine and are absorbed into the blood.

5.       The large intestine: the waste passes to the large intestine. Water from this waste is absorbed into the blood and the solid waste leaves our body through the anus.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system delivers blood through blood vessels. The main organ is the heart.

-          Blood is made up of:

o   Plasma: is a yellowish liquid which is 90% water and it carries the nutrients and waste products.

o   Red blood cells:  give blood its colour and carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.

o   White blood cells: fight ifection and abrsorb germs which enter the body.

o   Platelets join together and avoid bleeding.

Blood is transported through three types of blood vessels:

o   Arteries carry blood, which contains oxygen,  from the heart to the rest of the body.

o   Veins carry the blood, which contains carbón dioxide,  back to the heart.

o   Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that connect the arteries and the veins and gases and nutrients can pass through them to the cells.

-          The heart is a muscle that pumps blood through the body. It is made up of four chambers. The two chambers at the top are called right and left atria (they receive blood coming into the heart). The two chambers at the bottom are right an dleft ventricles. They are separated by valves which prevent blood from coming backwards.

·         Circulation

Blood flows around the body in a double circuit:

-          During pulmonary circulation , blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again.

-          During systematic circulation, the blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body.

1.       The deoxygenated blood passes from the right atrium to the right ventricle. From there it leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery and travels to the lungs.

2.       In the lungs, blood expels carbón dioxide and collects oxygen. Blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.

3.       The oxygenated blood goes to the left atrium and then to the left ventricle. From there the blood is pumped through the aorta (the biggest artery) to the rest of the body.

4.       The aorta carries the blood into small arteries and then to the capillaries.  In the capillaries, the blood releases oxygen and nutrients into the cells and collects carbon dioxide and other waste substances.

5.       The deoxygenated blood passes from the capillaries to the small veins and then to the largest veins in the body called the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. Theses veins carry the blood to the heart and the pocress begins again.

THE RESPIRATORY AND THE EXCRETORY system

·         The respiratory system

Our cells need oxygen to combine with nutrients and produce energy.  Duirng this process, cells produce carbon dioxide that has to be expeled from the body. We use the respiratory system to obtain energy and expel carbon dioxide.

When we breathe, air enters through the nose and the mouth and passes through the phraynx and trachea or windpipe. The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi and they into small bronchi called bronchioles. A the end of each bronchiole, there is a sack called alveoli which are covered by capillaries. The gas Exchange takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen passes from the alveoli to the capillaries and into the blood. At the same tima carbón dioxide leaves the blood and enters the alveoli. The air with carbón dioxide goes through the bronchioles to the bronchi and the trachea and finally out of the mouth and nose.

-          Inhalation: when we take air our diaphragm contrat and the lungs ínflate. The ribs expand.

-          Exhalation: when we expel air the ribs and the diaphragm relax and move up. Carbon dioxide leaves the lungs, the trachea and the mouth and nose.

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system eliminates waste products from our body. The excretory system consists of the urinary system and the sweat glands.

·         The urinary system

1.       The renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys.

2.       The kidneys eliminate water and urine (mixture of water and harmful substances) from blood.

3.       Urine leaves the kidneys and passes down through the ureters to the bladder.

4.       When the bladder is hlaf full, it sends signals to the brain to be emptied.

5.       The bladder is emptied through the urethra.

·         The sweating

Our body also eliminates waste products through the skin. When we get hot, sweat glands activate to cool down our body. Sweat glands, through the pores,  excrete sweat, which is a mixture of water and minerals.

UNIT 1. INTERACTION (NATURAL SCIENCE)

UNIT 1. INTERACTION

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Living organisms are made up of cells. A group of cells form a tissue. A group of tissues form an organ. A group of organs form a system. We have different systems, for example, the nervous system. It sends messages from the brain to the different parts of our body, such as the locomotor system which responds to the stimuli of our senses.

·         The central nervous system

The central nervous system has got two parts: the brain and the spinal cord.

-          The brain controls our nervous system. It is protected by the skull (or cranium) and it has three parts:

o   The cerebrum is the biggest part of our brain. We process information from our senses and we do cognitive thinking (take decisions, study, play…)

o   The crebellum controls our movements, coordination and balance.

o   The brain stem is the continuation of the spinal cord and it controls involuntary actions (brething, heartbeat…)

-          Th espinal cord is made up of nerve tissue . It is protected by the vertebrae. It controls our réflex actions.

·         The peripheral nervous system

It is made up of nerves and nerves are made up of neurons (tiny cells) that transform information using chemical and electrical signals. Nneurons have different tasks:

1.       Sensory neurons collect information from our sense organs.

2.       The brain interprets information and sends signals to the rest of the body.

3.       Motor neurons send messages from the brain to our locomotor system.

THE SENSES

·         Sight

1.       Light enters through the pupil and the cornea.

2.       The amount of light that enters is controlled by the iris (it also gives the eye the colour).

3.       The lens focuses the light on the retina at the back of the eye.

4.       Nerve receptors in the retina transmit the information to the optic nerve which sends the information to the brain. The place where the optic nerve leaves the eye is called a blind spot and it does not respond to light.

·         Hearing

1.       Sound waves enter through the auditory canal in the outer ear and the eardrum vibrates.

2.       These vibrations make the three small bones in the middle ear víbrate too.

3.       The vibrations finally reach the cochlea in the inner ear, where they become electrical signals.

4.       The auditory nerve sends the signals to the brain.

·         Smell

Chemicals in the air enter our nose through our nostrils. The chemicals come into contact with the nerve receptors which send the information to the brain through the olfactory nerve.

·         Taste

Substances enter our mouth and come into contact with our tongue, which is covered in taste buds that have receptor cellls. The receptor cells detect the different tastes and send the information to the brain.

·         Touch

The middle layer of our skin, the dermis, contain nerves and blood vessels. These detect sensation. Th enerves send the information to the brain through the periphral nervous system and the spinal cord.

HOW ME VOVE

Our body moves in response to signals from the brain. These signals travel from the nervous system to our muscles. They contract or relax to allow us to move. The locomotor system is made up of: the skeleton, joints and muscles.

·         The skeleton: is made up of bones. There are three types of bones:

-          Short bones which provide support and stability (vertebrae, for example).

-          Flat bones which protect the nternal organs (ribs, pelvis)

-          Long bones form the limbs and are used for movement.

·         Joints

Bones are connected at the joints by ligaments. The ends of bones at the joint are covered in tissue called cartilage. There are three types of joints:

-          Fixed: do not move like the skull.

-          Semi-flexible: that allow Little movement (vertebrae in the spine)

-          Flexible: most of them are flexible and make movements.

·         Muscles

Muscles are controlled by the nervous system which makes them contract and relax. There are three types:

-          Skeletal muscles: are joined to the bones by the tendons. They work in pairs. They are voluntary muscles.

-          Smooth muscles: are found in organs like the intestines and the stomach. They are involuntary muscles.

-          The cardiac muscle: makes up our heart. It is an involuntary muscle.